Biography of John Marshall, Supreme Court Chief Justice

Biography of John Marshall, Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall served as the chief justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835. During Marshalls 34 year tenure, the Supreme Court attained stature and established itself as a fully co-equal branch of the government. When Marshall was appointed by John Adams, the Supreme Court was widely viewed as a weak institution with little impact on government or society. However, the Marshall court became a check on the power of the executive and legislative branches. Many opinions written during Marshalls tenure established precedents which still continue to define the powers of the federal government to this day. Fast Facts: John Marshall Occupation: Supreme Court chief justice, secretary of state, and lawyerBorn: September 24, 1755 in Germantown, VirginiaDied: July 6, 1835 Philadelphia, PennsylvaniaEducation: College of William MarySpouses Name: Mary Willis Ambler Marshall (m. 1783–1831)Childrens Names: Humphrey, Thomas, MaryKey Accomplishment: Raised the stature of the U.S. Supreme Court, established the Supreme Court as a co-equal branch of government Early Life and Military Service John Marshall was born on the Virginia frontier on September 24, 1755. His family was related to some of the wealthiest members of the Virginia aristocracy, including Thomas Jefferson. However, because of several scandals in previous generations, Marshalls parents had inherited little and subsisted as hard-working farmers. Marshalls parents were somehow able to acquire a number of books. They instilled a love of learning in their son, and he compensated for a lack of formal education through extensive reading. When the colonies rebelled against the British, Marshall enlisted in a Virginia regiment. He rose to the title of officer and saw combat at battles including Brandywine and Monmouth. Marshall spent the bitter winter of 1777-78 at Valley Forge. It was said that his sense of humor helped him and his friends cope with the great hardship. As the Revolutionary War neared its end, Marshall found himself sidelined, as most of the men in his regiment had deserted. He remained an officer, but he had no men to lead, so he spent time attending lectures on the law at the College of William and Mary- his only experience with formal education. Legal and Political Career In 1780, Marshall was admitted to the Virginia Bar and began a law practice. Two years later, in 1782, he entered politics, winning the election to the Virginia legislature. Marshall earned a reputation as a very good lawyer whose logical thinking made up for his lack of formal schooling. He attended the convention at which Virginians debated whether to ratify the Constitution. He argued forcefully for ratification. He took a particular interest in defending Article III, which deals with the powers of the judiciary, and embraced the concept of judicial review- foreshadowing of his later career on the Supreme Court. In the 1790s, as political parties began to form, Marshall became a leading Federalist in Virginia. He aligned himself with President George Washington and Alexander Hamilton, and was a proponent of a strong national government. Marshall avoided joining the federal government, preferring to stay in the Virginia legislature. This decision arose partly from the fact that his private law practice was doing very well. In 1797, he accepted an assignment from President Adams, who sent him to Europe as a diplomat during a time of tension with France. After returning to America, Marshall ran for Congress, and was elected in 1798. In early 1800, Adams, who had been impressed by Marshalls diplomatic work, appointed him secretary of state. Marshall was serving in that position when Adams lost the election of 1800, which was eventually decided in the House of Representatives. Appointment to the Supreme Court In the final days of John Adams presidency, a problem arose on the Supreme Court: the Chief Justice, Oliver Ellsworth, resigned due to failing health. Adams wanted to appoint a successor before leaving office, and his first choice, John Jay, turned down the job. Marshall delivered the letter that contained Jays rejection of the position to Adams. Adams was disappointed to read Jays letter turning him down, and asked Marshall who he should appoint. Marshall said he did not know. Adams replied, I believe I must nominate you. Though surprised, Marshall agreed to accept the position of chief justice. In an odd quirk, he did not resign from the post of secretary of state. Marshall was easily confirmed by the Senate, and for a brief period he was both chief justice and secretary of state, a situation that would be unthinkable in the modern era. As the post of chief justice was not considered a lofty position at the time, it was perhaps surprising that Marshall accepted the offer. It is possible that, as a committed Federalist, he believed serving on the nations highest court might be a check on the incoming administration of Thomas Jefferson. Landmark Cases Marshalls tenure leading the Supreme Court began on March 5, 1801. He sought to strengthen and unify the court, and at the outset he was able to convince his colleagues to stop the practice of issuing separate opinions. For his first decade on the court, Marshall tended to write the courts opinions himself. The Supreme Court also assumed its lofty position in the government by deciding cases which set important precedents. Some of the landmark cases of the Marshall era are: Marbury v. Madison, 1803 Perhaps the most discussed and influential legal case in American history, Marshalls written decision in Marbury v. Madison established the principle of judicial review and was the first Supreme Court case to declare a law was unconstitutional. The decision written by Marshall would provide future courts with a sturdy defense of judicial power. Fletcher v. Peck, 1810 The decision, which involved a land dispute case in Georgia, established that a state court could strike down a state law as being inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution. McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819 The case arose from a dispute between the state of Maryland and the Bank of the United States. The Supreme Court, led by Marshall, held that the Constitution gave the federal government implied powers and that a state could not regulate the power of the federal government. Cohens v. Virginia, 1821 The case, which arose from a dispute between two brothers and the state of Virginia, established that the federal courts could review state court decisions. Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824 In case involving the regulation of steamboats in the waters around New York City, the Supreme Court held that the Constitutions commerce clause gave the federal government broad powers to regulate commerce. Legacy During the 34 years of Marshall’s tenure, the Supreme Court became a fully co-equal branch of the federal government. It was the Marshall court that first declared a law passed by Congress to be unconstitutional and set important limits on state powers. Without Marshalls guidance in the early decades of the 19th century, it is unlikely the Supreme Court could have grown into the powerful institution it has become. Marshall died on July 6, 1835. His death was marked with public displays of grieving, and in Philadelphia, the Liberty Bell cracked while being rung in tribute to him. Sources Paul, Joel Richard. Without Precedent: Chief Justice John Marshall and His Times. New York, Riverhead Books, 2018.Marshall, John. Shaping of America, 1783-1815 Reference Library, edited by Lawrence W. Baker, et al., vol. 3: Biographies Volume 2, UXL, 2006, pp. 347-359. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Marshall, John. Gale Encyclopedia of American Law, edited by Donna Batten, 3rd ed., vol. 6, Gale, 2011, pp. 473-475. Gale Virtual Reference Library.John Marshall. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 10, Gale, 2004, pp. 279-281. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

Wal mart Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Wal mart - Assignment Example Walmart Inc. operates more than 11,000 stores across 27 countries around the globe. Most of the international stores of Walmart are in Africa, Argentina, Brazil, China, Japan, Canada, Chile, Mexico, UK, and Central America. This is because they enjoy monopoly in countries without such vibrant stores and the population of the countries is a source of customers. b. Provide a trend analysis for years 2011, 2012 and 2013 as to where Walmart expanded and/or divested in its domestic and international markets. That is, where did they open and/or close their stores. Also pay attention to the type of stores they are opening and/or closing. Walmart has six different types of stores opened across the world. Among them is the Supercenter, quick-trip to a convenience store, Discount store, Sam’s Club warehouse stores, Campus convenience stores. The company decided to enhance selling of groceries since they learnt that food sells as compared to other stuff Consolidated net sales for the entire fiscal year were $466.1 billion representing an increase of 5.0% over fiscal 2012. Net sales included about $4.0 billion from acquisitions and approximately $4.5 billion of negative impact from currency fluctuations of exchange rate. Membership and other income was $3.0 billion, showing a decrease of 1.6 percent from the previous year. The total revenue was $469.2 billion increasing by $22.2billion or 5%. Income from continuing operations connected to Walmart was $17.0 billion, which is a 7.8 % increase from $15.8 billion in the previous fiscal year. 2013 fiscal was $5.02 as compared to last year’s $4.54, a 10.6% increase. The effective tax rate for the wholeyear was 31.0 percent, compared to 32.6 percent for the prior year. The trend in the analysis shows that Walmart has a financial graph that is rising between 2011 and 2013. This comes as a result of having a fiscal policy that is organized

Was World War II Ultimately Beneficial for the US and the Rest of the Research Paper

Was World War II Ultimately Beneficial for the US and the Rest of the World - Research Paper Example ... since the end of the Second World War, there are two major features of the capitalist world that immediately stand out and call for remark. Firstly there is the marked extension in American and in Western Europe of the economic activities of the state: developments, to a large extent novel both in degree and in kind, of what have been variously called State Capitalism or State Monopoly Capitalism. Secondly, on a world scale there is the radical change in the position of large areas of the former colonial and semi-colonial sector, especially in Asia and Africa, and consequently in the relations, both political and economic, between these areas and the imperialist countries, to which they were formerly subordinated. (Dobb 387) The USA was the only country whose economy boomed during the war. Not a single enemy stepped on its soils and the lives of a few civilians were sacrificed. Even the army did not suffer a heavy loss in terms of causalities. â€Å"... the economic prosperity c reated by World War II left a deep impression on the American people. Before the war, the United States was mired in the Great Depression. Unemployment which was as high as 29.4% in 1933 still averaged 14.6% in 1940. During the war, unemployment dropped rapidly.† (Degrasse 36) This was not true for other countries though- the USSR, Japan, Germany, China, France, Britain, Greece, Holland, and other countries suffered heavy losses. The aftermath of the war was horrifying for the rest of the world. â€Å"... with increasing acknowledgement of the United States’ status as the leading democratic power came increased acceptance of responsibility in the global arena... Perhaps with constructive American involvement a better world could be shaped, a world more prosperous, free, democratic and safe.† (Price 71) Decolonization was not only in the interest of the colonies but of the US as well. The US was dreading another depression at the end of the Second World War, and w as planning to market its products to the former colonies in Asia and Africa. This was not possible as the colonialist powers would never have granted access to the US as long as they remained in power. The US was also determined to decolonize subjugated nations because of its ideals of equality, freedom and democracy. The US also had its deep interests in the Middle East region and wanted to establish its oil exploring companies permanently over there. This was only possible if this region was decolonized so that America could build its dreams. The colonialists themselves were finding it hard to resist the pressure coming from the colonies for independence- most notable from India. Post-Second World War scenario was already very challenging for them to handle matters at home. Therefore, a weakened Europe was ready to decolonize its territories. Cold War was also a consequential factor of the Second World War. The Nazi Germany fell in 1945 and was divided into 4 military occupation zones occupied by France, Great Britain, USA and Soviet Union. It faced a terrible time of hyperinflation and was rescued by the Marshal Plan to some extent. At the end of the war the problem of

Country’s economy Essay Example for Free

Country’s economy Essay These are goods that cannot be provided by the private sector but are very essential to the development of a country’s economy. They are usually very expensive undertakings with fewer returns or take a long time for the investors to recoup their money back. This makes them to be less attractive to the private sector investors who are mainly driven by the profit motive and would thus be unwilling to invest their resources in such projects. The government has the mandate of providing such goods that are very essential which have indivisible cost with a marginal cost of zero (Kaul, 2006). It is not possible to practically charge the public for the utilizing such goods. The government can therefore, only collect taxes from the public to enable it provide public goods. Public goods in this category include roads and state security provided by the policemen who are paid by the government. There are other public goods that even though, they have high returns and the private sector can be able to invest in them, they cannot be allowed to do so by the government due to the amount of risk involved. Manufacturing or trading of weapons is a risky activity that no government can be willing to allow it to be done by the private sector as it would put the public into a lot of risk since the private sector investors in such an industry would mostly be guided by the profit motive and not whether or not ammunitions will be on the wrong hands or the right ones (Kaul, 2006). The public goods are very important to everyone, including the private investors who shy away from investing their resources in such ventures. It is this importance that makes the government to be under obligation of providing such goods to its people since they are very essential and it is only the government that is best placed to provide them (Kaul, 2006). Reference: Kaul, I. (2006): What is a public good? Retrieved on 17th June 2009 from, http://mondediplo. com/2000/06/15publicgood.

Sir Isaac Newton Essays -- Biographies

Isaac Newton Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scientists of all time. He is best-known for his discovery of the law of universal gravitation and the laws of motion. Much of modern science is based on the understanding and use of his laws. Isaac Newton was born on Christmas Day, 1642, in the small English town of Woolsthorpe. His father, a farmer, died shortly before Isaac was born. When the boy was three years old, his mother remarried and moved to another town. Isaac stayed on at the farm in Woolsthorpe with his grandmother. After attending small country school, he was sent at the age of twelve to the Kings School in the near by town of Grantham. At first Isaac was a poor student. He cared little for school work, perferring to paint, make kites, write in notebooks, or invent toys. He made no friends. Silent and dreamy, he was at the bottom of his class. Oddly, it was a savage kick by a school bully that caused Newton's great mind to awaken. The mild, dreamy boy flew into a rage and beat the other boy thoroughly. Isaac determined to beat the bully in school work as well. Soon Isaac was at the head of his class. In 1656 Newton's stepfather died. His mother returned to Woolsthorpe to take care of the farm left by Newton's father. But she could not manage the farm by herself. Isaac was taken out of school and brought home to help her. As a farmer, Newton proved to be a dismal failure. He neglected the necessary chores and thought only of books to study and mechanical things to make. There are many stories about him at that time that show how absent minded he was becoming. One day while he was leading a horse, the animal slipped its bridle and ran away. ... ...ly called the Principia, after its Latin title. Many scientists think its the most important scientific book ever written. It contains Newton's famous three laws of motion. It also contained his law of universal gravitation. This law applies not only to heavenly bodies. It also explains why a baseball drops from your hand to the ground and why a particle of dust settles on a bookshelf. During later years Newton served his country in Parliament, as well as in other ways. In 1703 he was elected president of the Royal Society, and in 1705 he was knighted by Queen Anne. Isaac Newton died in 1727. He was burried in Westminster Abbey, among the great men of England. His statue stands today in the hall of Trinity College, Cambridge University. Bibliography: David C. knight. "isaac Newtons, Mastermind of modern Science" Groiler inc. Canada, 1969.

Discrimination in fairytales

What do you think about fairytales? Do you think about a pretty little princess waiting for her prince or a dark sensual world of make-believe that revolves around violence? I seriously doubt it's the latter. This is because fairytales have drastically changed over the centuries. The modern versions we know today were preceded by a much darker kind of story, one that played heavily on the ideas of superstition, the devil and violence. Genders weren't as heavily criticised. Heroines used to save themselves and others too, usually with brains or charm opposed to brawn. But at least they were trying. An example of this could be â€Å"Sleeping Beauty†, Perrault's version, where the Princess saves herself and her two children from her husband's evil stepmother, by cooking a goat; instead of one of the children as the ogress requested. Her husband then comes in to save her. She played a crucial part in the story: saving her children from the cannibalism of their father's step-mother. Cannibalism is certainly frowned on in society, but is in fact actually a rather common theme in fairytales: Red Riding Hood also originally included cannibalism. The Wolf left the Grandmother's blood and meat for the girl to eat. After she unwittingly cannibalises her grandmother, she sometimes strips for the wolf and gets into bed with it. He then either eats her or ties her to a piece of string. She usually escapes using her own cunning. This is quite different from the grandma-loving biscuit-carrying Red Riding Hood of today. It actually comes across as a story more about child molesting, or at the very least, lust. The story is sometimes seen as a parable of sexual awakening. The red cloak symbolises the blood of the menstruation cycle or the hymen, although earlier versions of the tale do not state the cloak is red. The anthropomorphic wolf can symbolise a lover, a seducer, a rapist, or a molester. This is clearly a rather different take on the Red Riding Hood than we're used to. It seems to be a rather mature disturbing tale. I don't think it's necessarily something we would want our children exposed to. But that was how they were originally written. At least until they were bowdlerised by the Grimm brothers. Fairy stories were originally gothic tales and scary stories about what might come and take you in the night; they were far removed from the Disney classics. The Grimm brothers, Jacob and Wilhelm, were born in Germany in the late 18th century. In an effort to preserve Germany's heritage and promote cultural unity, they collected a vast array of folk and fairy tales from their fellow Germans-mostly middle- and upper-class friends. Although their original intent was to preserve the stories exactly as told, one edit led to another, and soon they had given the stories a literary style and released them as Kinder- und Hausmirchen (Children's and Household Tales. ) Because their intended audience included children, the Grimms selectively bowdlerised the tales they published, notably removing evil mothers and replacing them with step-mothers (as in the case of †Snow White†), and removing implications of sex and pregnancy (as in †Rapunzel†). However, because standards of child-friendliness have shifted in the past 200 years, some of the Grimms' stories are now considered family unfriendly and the deaths written in them are considered to be shockingly violent. This was not the view at the time. So basically they took a fornicating girl in a tower, and turned her into a damsel in distress. This was not quite the same idea. This gave rise to the dependent needy princesses and maidens that feature so heavily in today's fairytales. These are characters that belittle everything that women fight and give their lives to achieve. And ironically it is the past stories that show less anti-feminism even though people were actually more sexist in that period. At least those women had some self-respect and the ability to plot, and in rare cases, use weapons. The blonde stereotype of women in modern fairytales is unparalleled. From a young age, it's almost as if we are being trained to indulge in the ideals of vanity and sexual dependence. Well excuse me†¦ but I'd rather not. It seems to me that this is the start of young girls' urge and desperation for ‘the look': this is something that many women will diet and exercise to achieve. Although as girls age they graduate off pretty princesses and onto fashion icons and models. I'm completely against this idea, partly because I'm a perpetrator of wanting ‘the look' myself, and the fact that I will never achieve it. In other fairytales, a heroine is willingly bound by a spell, whereas a male character may be cursed because he has refused to yield something, for example shelter, in ‘Beauty and the Beast'. If the female character is cursed unwillingly, she is cursed by a malignant character that is as ugly as her personality. This is the exact opposite of the maiden who is cursed. This amplifies the idea that beauty is idyllic and good and ugliness is evil and unforgivable. This isn't a very good role model for children and I find this interesting because it seems to reflect our desire for beauty. However, the reality is that women are not all beautiful and if they aren't, it doesn't necessarily mean that they are nasty unpleasant people. Some villains do have a sort of beauty, but this is usually a sharp-featured frightening beauty that terrifies the younger generation. A wronged women in a fairytale may take the form of a particular animal to escape an evil stepmother or an unwanted marriage. The animal they take is usually reflective of their main traits. For example a graceful and delicate woman may take the form of a swan or a doe. These are animals that are considered to be beautiful. Their fellow animals will provide some company and will somehow help the character to regain what they have lost. This animalistic form gives the character a connection to nature and separates them from society. They become wilder and less sophisticated, embracing a more instinctual kind of beauty. So characters have also gone from blonde to beast, the opposite of the current situation-where blondes prevail far more than beasts. Beastly women, however, are often considered to be connected the Devil, like ‘wild woman' who is the devil's offspring. Lots of hair or fur seems to show some relation to evil, perhaps as it isn't very attractive. This can be compared with the Elizabethan saying ‘Bush natural more hair than wit' which means that people with lots of hair or fur are supposed to be primitive, inferior, sexual and beastly. These weren't exactly desirable traits either at the time or now. Nowadays there seems to be a teeming population of blondes in fairy stories. An example could be â€Å"La Belle aux cheveux d'or† who had hair ‘finer than gold' that was ‘marvellously wonderfully blonde' and was ‘curly and fell to her feet'. This is a rather pleasing image: a beauty with long wondrously blonde hair. The story claims ‘you couldn't look upon her without loving her'. A rather amazing claim: that a woman or man may just gaze upon her and find themselves desperately in love with her, whether in a sexual way or not. This seems to be an illustration of the power possessed by mere appearances. The word blonde comes from the Latin ‘blandus' meaning charming. So in the past it had no implications of sex or great femininity. It also comes from the Medieval Latin ‘blundus' meaning yellow, which only serves to describe the colour not the appeal. In the 14th century, Chaucer began to use the word ‘blondinet' or ‘blondin', which was an affectionate diminutive. In fact it was mainly used for boys. Nowadays we don't think of boys being blonde in the same way girls are. Blonde began to become exclusively female and suggested sweetness, charm and youthfulness: everything a young princess would desire. Only in the 30's and 40's did the word acquire ‘hot' vampirish undertones and begin to be desired almost obsessively. The word blonde symbolises femininity and beauty; things that women crave beyond reason. However, the reality is that it's just a hair colour and that there are women of all hair colours- black, brown, red, grey†¦ white, if you count albinos- that are as beautiful as blondes. More disturbingly perhaps, in recent years the word blonde has been yoked with ‘dumb' to depict a particular character type. Not only is the heroine nearly always blonde, but she is always young. This seems rather ageist to me and isn't the sort of idea that we would want our children brainwashed with. Do we want them to idolise the youthful and not respect that the elderly can achieve things themselves? No. They should understand from a young age that you can't use people and that OAP's are not a step of the stairway of success, as people is fairy stories often do. The heroine never possesses great wisdom and seems to get things and assistance by flicking her hair and batting her eyelashes. Wow†¦ that's very useful. I don't think that that should be something that children aspire to be like. Intelligence and knowledge are more important than beauty, and fairytales seem to miss this. So the prince can slay a dragon, but can he win a game of checkers? I wouldn't count on it. It seems to me that in fairytales, only the villains seem to possess a decent IQ, as they're the only characters that use their brains or cunning to conjure up a scheme. Heroes rely on courage. I think it's almost sad that in the stories strength and beauty are idolised and seem to triumph over intelligence. This is similar today, however, if we think about how the bullies of the world act all big and tough, but aren't the brightest bulbs around. They tend to pick on the weak, so in today's world that would be the geek. Rather sad, don't you think? The stereotype of a maiden in fairy stories is dependent, needy and waiting for her happily-ever after. This is not exactly an image to aspire to. After all why would a woman need a man? She could get on perfectly well on her own. As the feminist saying goes, â€Å"A women needs a man, like a fish needs a bicycle. † However, I think this is a little extreme. Perhaps this dreadful stereotype of women could be remedied if half the time the women went out to save the men. Perhaps it would ruin the men's egos, but at least the women could be portrayed with a little self-respect and not a day-dreaming ditz who has the attention span of a goldfish. The 90's Disney movies tried desperately to do this. Ariel, Belle and Mulan who rush to the aid of their lovers are the examples of this. I decided to write about fairytales because there are so many issues surrounding them. I remember them with fondness from my childhood, and I would want to read them to my children and grandchildren. I think gender discrimination is a serious issue. Just because someone has an X and a Y chromosome or two X's, it doesn't mean they are any better than the other. I think feminism is a step too far in the other direction however. Being co-dependent isn't necessarily a bad thing. Men need women too. Fairytales show both sides of this as well. The prince rescues his princess as he can't live without her and the maiden loves the man because†¦ well who can resist a man on a white horse? Not me! They are simple stories that are debated hotly because of the context of them. Are they too violent? Are they too idealistic? Are they too perfect? Fairytales are all about love and romance. They are about good triumphing over evil in a series of unlikely events. They tell us of deeds of valour and bravery in a time that we can only imagine. They show us how a poor little maid can fall in love and become a princess. The characters may be seriously flawed and have many issues, but they are stories. Wonderful stories. Stories that we read time and time again so that we can dream of being that brave knight or that damsel in distress. I think that my childhood would not have been the same without Chicken Licken or the Princess and the Pea. I think that even though they are unrealistic and give people impossible expectations and dreams, they are a part of our culture. To edit them, as the Grimm brothers did, would destroy a time long-forgotten. I think that they still exist today. The royalty of today is the celebrities-actors and models. We look at them and wish we were like them, just as the people of the Renaissance would have looked at a princess and thought ‘I wish I was her†¦ ‘ Dreaming is in our nature and to change that for the sake of a few misconceptions would be unforgivable.

Taking a Look at the Inca Civilizaiton - 1699 Words

THE INCA CIVILIZATION Inca, the word is derived from Inti, the sun god, was one of the largest and oldest Pre-Columbian civilization extending from Ecuador in north to whole of Chile in south. The region is predominantly known as Andean region and is modern day Peru, with official language being Quechua. They had their own flag which is a very impressive thing about this civilization because flags gained prominence only in 17th-18th century. Incas were the most powerful Empire in that region ruling more 12 million people for around 100 years. Incas are believed to be ruling from 1438 A.D- 1532 A.D with Aristocratic ruling system in the society. Inca Empire was founded by Ayar Manco, popularly known Manco Capac and was known as Sapa Inca â€Å"child of the sun†. Incas were firm believer in god worshipping creator god Viracocha, Sun god Inti, Thunder god Illapa and earth-mother goddess Pachamama. Incas had a very powerful army conquering different parts of Pre-Columbian America using weapons such as axes, bow and arrow, spears, swords and more importantly Clubs(it was considered as a unique weapon which Incas only used) majorly made up of stone and copper. They had a very keen sense of clothing and dressed according to their position in the society with noble donning more expensive clothing than the Inca commoner. As far as shelter is concerned, housed were divided into two types one for commoners and other for Nobles, the latter being highly decorated and made of stone whereas